Makindo Medical Notes.com Comprehensive Medical Encyclopedia | Education for Healthcare Professionals

@About this App @Contributers @Developer ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone)AFP (Alpha-fetoprotein) Testing AIDS Dementia Complex (HIV)AIDS HIV Infection APGAR Scoring (Children)APTT and Coagulation Abacavir Abatacept Abbreviated Mental Test Score (AMTS)Abciximab Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Abdominal paracentesis for ascites Abducent Nerve Abetalipoproteinaemia Abnormal Vaginal bleeding Acamprosate Acanthocytosis Acanthosis Nigricans Acarbose Accelerated Idioventricular Rhythm Acetazolamide Acetylcholine Receptor Antibodies Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors Achalasia Achilles Tendon rupture Achondroplasia (Children)Aciclovir Acid maltase deficiency (Pompe disease)Acne Rosacea Acne Vulgaris Acoustic Neuroma (Schwannoma)Acrodermatitis enteropathica (Children)Acromegaly and Giantism Acromio-clavicular joint Actinomyces israeli Action Potential Activated Charcoal Actrapid (Insulin)Acute Abdominal Pain - Acute Peritonitis Acute Acalculous Cholecystitis Acute Anaphylactoid Reactions Acute Anaphylaxis Acute Angle Closure Glaucoma Acute Appendicitis Acute Bacterial Meningitis Acute Bronchitis Acute Cholangitis Acute Cholecystitis Acute Colonic Pseudo-obstruction Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS) General Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS) NSTEMI USA Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS) STEMI Acute Coronary Syndrome (Cardiac Troponins)Acute Coronary Syndrome Grace score Acute Delirium Acute Disc lesions Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis Acute Diverticulitis - Diverticular disease Acute Dystonic Reaction Acute Encephalitis Acute Eosinophilic Pneumonia Acute Epiglottitis Acute Exacerbation of COPD Acute Hepatitis Acute Hydrocephalus Acute Hypotension Acute Inflammation Acute Intermittent Porphyria (AIP)Acute Interstitial nephritis Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)Acute Limb Ischaemia Acute Liver Failure Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia (ALL)Acute Mastoiditis Acute Monoarthritis Acute Myeloid Leukaemia (AML)Acute Myocarditis Acute Pancreatitis Acute Pelvic Inflammatory Disease Acute Pericarditis Acute Phase reactants Acute Porphyrias Acute Promyelocytic Leukaemia Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (Adults)Acute Retroviral Syndrome (HIV)Acute Rhabdomyolysis Acute Rheumatic fever Acute Rotator cuff tear Acute Severe Asthma Acute Severe Colitis Acute Sinusitis Acute Stroke Assessment (ROSIER&NIHSS)Acute Tonsilitis Acute Urinary Retention Acute and Chronic Gout Acute and Chronic Heart Failure Acute on Chronic Liver Disease Decompensation Acutely Ill Patient Adalimumab Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination-Revised (ACER)Addison Disease (Adrenal Insufficiency)Adefovir Adenosine Adenosine deaminase deficiency Adhesive Capsulitis (Frozen Shoulder)Adjustment - Anxiety disorders Adrenal Antibodies Adrenal Physiology Adrenaline (Epinephrine)Adrenoleukodystrophy Adrenomyeloneuropathy Adult Onset Still's Disease African Trypanosomiasis (Sleeping sickness)Age related macular degeneration Aicardi syndrome Air Embolism Albumin Albumin-Protein Creatinine Ratio (PCR)Alcohol Abuse Alcohol Withdrawal (Delirium Tremens)Alcoholic (Steato)Hepatitis Alcoholic Ketoacidosis Aldosterone Physiology Alendronate (Alendronic acid)Alfacalcidol Alkaline phosphatase (ALP)Alkalinisation of urine Alkaptonuria Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis Allogeneic stem cell transplantation Allopurinol Alogliptin (Vipidia)Alopecia Alpha Fetoprotein Alpha Thalassaemia Alpha subunit (ASU) of TSH Alpha-1 Antitrypsin (AAT) deficiency Alport's Syndrome Alteplase Altitude sickness Aluminium and Magnesium Antacids Alveolar Gas Equation Alzheimer disease (Dementia)Amantadine Amenorrhoea American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas Disease)Amiloride Amino acids Aminoglycosides Aminophylline Aminosalicylates Amiodarone Amiodarone and Thyroid disease Amitriptyline Amlodipine Ammonia Encephalopathy Amnestic syndromes Amoebiasis (Entamoeba histolytica)Amoxicillin Amphetamine toxicity Amphotericin B Ampicillin Anaemia of Chronic Disease Anagrelide Anakinra Anal Cancer Andexanet alfa Androgen insensitivity syndrome Aneurysms Angina bullosa haemorrhagica Angiodysplasia Angiomyolipoma Angioneurotic Oedema Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitors Angiotensin Converting enzyme (ACE)Angular Stomatitis - Cheilitis Anion Gap Ankle and Foot fractures and Injuries Ankle-Brachial pressure Index (ABPI)Ankylosing spondylitis Anorexia Nervosa Antacid medication Antepartum haemorrhage Anterior Horn Cell diseases Anterior circulation Anti Dementia Drugs Anti-Cyclic Citrullinated Peptide (CCP) Antibody Anti-D immunoglobulin Anti-Hu antibodies Anti-OKT3 antibodies Anti-RNP Antibody Anti-Yo antibodies Anti-neutrophilic cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA)Antibiotics for Abdominal Infections Anticholinergic Burden Anticholinergic syndrome Anticipation Anticoagulation and Antithrombotics Antidiuretic hormone (Vasopressin)Antigen presenting cells Antimicrobial Choices Antimuscarinic drugs Antiphospholipid syndrome Antithrombin III deficiency (AT3)Aorta anatomy Aortic Dissection Aortic Regurgitation (Incompetence)Aortic Sclerosis Aortic Stenosis Aortoenteric fistula Apathetic thyrotoxicosis Apixaban Aplastic anaemia Apomorphine Appendix Cancer Tumours Approach to Assessing Sick Child Approach to child with Acute Gastroenteritis Approach to child with respiratory Distress Arnold Chiari malformation Arrhythmogenic Right ventricular Cardiomyopathy Artemisinins Arterial Blood gas analysis Arterial Pulse assessment Arterial blood gas sampling Arterial vs Venous vs Other Leg Ulcers Arteriovenous malformations Artery of Percheron stroke Artery-to-artery embolic stroke Artesunate Asbestos Related Lung disease Ascites Assessment and Management Aspergilloma Aspergillus fumigatus Aspirin Aspirin Salicylates toxicity Assessing Abdominal Pain Assessing Breathlessness Assessing Chest Pain Assessing Falls Asteatotic eczema Asthma Astigmatism Astrocytomas Asystole Ataxia Telangiectasia Atazanavir Atenolol Atherosclerosis Atopic Eczema or Atopic Dermatitis Atorvastatin Atracurium Atrial Ectopic beats Atrial Fibrillation (Chemical cardioversion)Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)Atrial fibrillation (AF)Atrial flutter Atrial myxoma Atrial septal defect (ASD)Atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia Atropine Sulfate Autoantibodies Autoimmune Haemolytic anaemia (AIHA)Autoimmune Hepatitis Autonomic neuropathy Autosomal Dominant Autosomal Dominant Polycystic kidney disease Autosomal Recessive Azathioprine Azithromycin B lymphocytes BRCA genes (Familial Breast Cancer)Bacillus anthracis Bacillus cereus poisoning Backpain / Backache Baclofen Bacteria Bacteroides fragilis Balanitis (Adults)Balanitis (Children)Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN)Balsalazide (Aminosalicylate)Barrett's oesophagus Bartonella Bartters syndrome Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC)Basic Fracture management Basilar artery thrombosis Becker Muscular dystrophy Beclometasone Beer Potomania Behavioural and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia Behcet's syndrome Bell's palsy Bendroflumethiazide (Bendrofluazide)Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV)Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia Benign recurrent intrahepatic cholestasis Benzodiazepine Toxicity Benzodiazepines Benzylpenicillin Sodium (Penicillin G)Berg Balance Scale Beriplex Berylliosis Beta Agonists Beta Blocker toxicity Beta Thalassaemia Beta-2 Microglobulin Beta-lactamases Betahistine (Serc)Bezafibrate Biceps rupture Bilateral adrenalectomy Biliary atresia Bilirubin Biochemical Lab values Bisacodyl Bisoprolol Bisphosphonates Bladder Cancer Bladder Stones Bleeding Bleeding disorders Bleeding due to Drugs Bleomycin Blindness - global causes Blood products - Packed cells blood transfusion Blood Products - Cryoprecipitate Blood Products - Fresh Frozen Plasma Blood Products - Platelets Blood film interpretation Blood gas values Bloody Diarrhoea Blotting Techniques: Gel Electrophoresis Bone Marrow Transplantation Bone disease Lab results Bone metabolism RANK RANKL OPG pathway Bone scintigraphy (Bone scan)Bordetella pertussis - Whooping cough Borrelia burgdorferi Borrelia recurrentis Botulism Brachial neuritis (neuralgic amyotrophy)Brachial plexus anatomy Brachial plexus and associated injury Brain Abscess Brain Anatomy and function Brain MRI Brain Natriuretic Peptide (BNP)Brain Physiology Brain Tumours (Cancer)Brainstem anatomy Branchial cleft cyst Breast Cancer Breast Fibroadenoma Bretylium Broad complex Tachycardia Bromocriptine Bronchial adenoma Bronchiectasis Bronchiolitis Bronchoscopy Brown-Sequard syndrome Brucella Brugada syndrome Budd-Chiari syndrome Budesonide Buerger disease (Thromboangiitis obliterans )Bulbar vs Pseudobulbar palsy Bulimia Nervosa Bullous Pemphigoid Bumetanide Bunions Buprenorphine Bupropion Burkholderia cepacia Burkitt's lymphoma Burns Busulphan (Busulfan)Byssinosis C reactive protein (CRP)CADASIL CARASIL CHADS2 - CHA2DS2-VASc score CMV retinitis CNS fungal Infections CNS infections CSF Rhinorrhoea CT Head Basics (Stroke)CT Pulmonary angiogram (CTPA)CT imaging basics for Stroke CURB 65 score Cabergoline Caecal Volvulus Caisson Disease - Decompression sickness Calcitonin Calcitriol (1,25 Dihydroxycholecalciferol)Calcium Chloride or Gluconate Calcium Physiology Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition (Pseudogout)Calcium Resonium Calcium channel blockers toxicity Calot's triangle Campylobacter Cancer of Unknown Primar Candesartan Candidiasis Cannabis toxicity Capecitabine Capnocytophaga canimorsus Capnography Capreomycin Captopri Carbamazepine Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae Carbimazole Carbon monoxide poisoning Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA)Carcinoid Heart Disease Carcinoid Tumour Syndrome Carcinoma of the Bile Duct Carcinoma of the Gallbladder Cardiac Amyloid heart disease Cardiac Anatomy and Physiology Cardiac Catheter ablation Cardiac Infections Cardiac MRI Cardiac Resynchronisation Therapy (CRT) Pacemaker Cardiac Valve replacement Cardioembolic stroke Cardiogenic Pulmonary Oedema Cardiogenic shock Cardiology - History Taking Cardiology Exam List Cardiology Examination Cardiology Valves Summary Cardiopulmonary bypass Carmustine Carotid Artery anatomy Carotid Body Tumour Carotid Endarterectomy Carotid Sinus Syncope Carotid Stenting Carotid artery Dissection Carotid sinus massage Carpal tunnel syndrome Carvedilol Case 01 Sudden weakness Case 02 Loss of speech Case 03 Adult male weak legs Case 04 High calcium Case 05 High Potassium and heart failure Case 06 High calcium and weight loss Case 07 Weak eyes Case 08 Weak face Case 09 A cause of Delirium Case 10 Older patient presenting post stroke Case 11 Young patient with acute headache Case 20 Young patient with acute headache Case 21 Hypoglycaemia Case 22 Case 23 Old man with tremor Case 24 Cancer and weak Case 99 (Acute breathlessness)Case Template Cat Scratch Disease Cataract Catheter Related Urinary Tract infection UTI Catheter related Blood stream infection Catheter related UTI Cauda equina syndrome Caudate Nucleus Causes of Airway Obstruction Causes of Avascular Necrosis of Femoral head Causes of Sore throat Causes of Weakness Cavernous angiomas (Cavernomas)Cavernous sinus Cavernous sinus thrombosis Cefaclor Cefalexin Cefotaxime Ceftazidime Ceftriaxone Cefuroxime Celecoxib Cell Response to Injury Cellular Anatomy and Physiology Cellulitis Central Cord Syndrome Central Retinal Vein Occlusion (CRVO)Central Retinal artery Occlusion (CRAO)Central Venous line Insertion Central pontine myelinolysis Cephalosporins Cerebellar Anatomy Physiology Signs Disease Cerebellar Haemorrhage Cerebellar Stroke Cerebral Amyloid angiopathy (CAA)Cerebral Aneurysms Cerebral Angiitis Cerebral Atrophy vs Hydrocephalus Cerebral Cortex Cerebral Metastases Cerebral Palsy Cerebral Perfusion Cerebral Salt Wasting Cerebral Venous Sinus thrombosis Cerebral arteritis Cerebral microbleeds Cervical Cancer screening Cervical Spine injury Cervical cancer Cervical spondylosis Cetirizine Chancroid Charcot Foot Syndrome (CFS)Charcot Marie Tooth (CMT) disease Chediak Higashi syndrome Chest Abdomen anatomy Chest X Ray #1 Chest X Ray Interpretation Chest drain Insertion Chlamydia - Chlamydophila pneumoniae Chlamydia psittaci Chlamydia trachomatis Chlorambucil Chloramphenicol Chlordiazepoxide Chloroquine Chlorphenamine(Chlorpheniramine)Chlorpromazine Cholangiocarcinoma Cholera (Vibrio cholera)Cholestatic Jaundice Cholesteatoma Cholesterol - Lipids Cholinergic crisis-syndrome Chondrocalcinosis Chorea - Ballismus Choreoacanthocytosis Chromosome instability syndromes Chronic Bronchitis Chronic Hepatitis Chronic Inflammation Chronic Inflammatory Demyelinating polyneuropathy Chronic Interstitial Nephritis Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)Chronic Lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL)Chronic Myeloid Leukaemia (CML)Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)Chronic Pancreatitis Chronic Peritonitis Chronic Radiation Enteritis Chronic Urinary Retention Chronic Vision Uni-Bilateral loss (Blindness)Chronic and recurrent Meningitis Chronic liver disease Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis Chronic stable angina Chylomicrons Ciclosporin Cimetidine Cinacalcet Ciprofloxacin Cirrhosis Cisplatin Citalopram Cladribine Clarithromycin Cleft lip or palate Clindamycin Clopidogrel Clostridium botulinum Clostridium difficile Clostridium perfringens Clostridium tetani - Tetanus Clotrimazole cream Clotting pathways Clozapine Co Careldopa (Sinemet)Co-Amoxiclav (Augmentin)Co-Beneldopa (Madopar)Co-codamol Co-trimoxazole Coagulopathy Coal Worker's Pneumoconiosis Coarctation of the Aorta (CoA aortopathy)Cocaine abuse Cocaine induced chest pain Cocaine toxicity Coccidioidomycosis Codeine Coeliac disease Cogan Syndrome Colchicine Cold Agglutinin Disease (CAD/AIHA)Collagen Colloid cyst in the third ventricle Colloids Colonic (Large bowel) Obstruction Colonoscopy Colorectal cancer Colorectal polyps Colposcopy Coma management Combined Oral contraceptive pill (COCP)Common Peroneal Nerve (CPN)Common variable immunodeficiency Comparing Rheumatoid and Osteoarthritis Complement Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment (CGA)Confirming Death Congenital Acyanotic Heart Disease (Children)Congenital Adrenal hyperplasia Congenital Complete Heart Block Congenital Cyanotic Heart Disease (Children)Congenital Hypothyroidism Congenital Talipes Equinovarus - Clubfoot Constipation Constrictive Pericarditis Contact allergic dermatitis Continuous Positive Airways Pressure (CPAP)Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis Contraception Conus Medullaris syndrome Cor Pulmonale Coronary artery bypass graft surgery Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 COVID 19 Corticobasal degeneration (Dementia)Corticosteroid-related psychosis Corticosteroids Corynebacterium diphtheriae Cotard delusion Coxiella Burnetii Cranial nerves and examination Craniopharyngioma Creatinine Clearance Cremation forms (UK)Creutzfeldt Jakob disease (Dementia)Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever Critical illness neuromuscular weakness Crohn's disease Croup Cryptococcus neoformans infections Cryptogenic Fibrosing Alveolitis Cryptogenic Organising Pneumonia (COP-BOOP)Cryptosporidiosis Crysal arthritis Crystalloids Cushing disease Cushing syndrome Cutaneous Leishmaniasis Cyanide toxicity Cyanosis - Central and Peripheral Cyclizine Cyclo-oxygenase (COX) enzymes Cyclophosphamide Cycloserine Cys leukotriene receptor antagonists Cystic Fibrosis Cystinosis Cystinuria Cytokines Cytomegalovirus infections D Dimer DNA and RNA short notes DNA replication Dabigatran Dalteparin Dandy Walker syndrome Dantrolene Dapagliflozin Darier's Disease Darunavir DeQuervain's thyroiditis Death Certificates (UK)Deep brain stimulation Deep vein thrombosis (DVT)Dehydration Physiology Delayed Puberty Criteria Demeclocycline Dementia with Lewy bodies Dementias Demyelinating Diseases Dengue Fever Denosumab (Prolia)Dental Anatomy Dentatorubral pallidoluysian atrophy Depression Dermatitis Herpetiformis Dermatology terms Dermatomes Dermatomyositis Dermoid cysts Desferrioxamine Desmopressin (DDAVP)Desogestrel (Progestogen Only Pill)Developmental Dislocation (Dysplasia) of the Hip Developmental Milestones Dexamethasone DiGeorge syndrome (thymic aplasia)Diabetes Insipidus (Cranial and Nephrogenic)Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 and DKA (children)Diabetes Mellitus Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in pregnancy Diabetes on the ward Diabetic Autonomic Neuropathy (DAN)Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) Adults Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) with SGLT2 Inhibitors Diabetic Nephropathy Diabetic Retinopathy Diabetic amyotrophy Diabetic foot Diamond-Blackfan anaemia Diamorphine Diaphragmatic disorders Diarrhoea Diazepam Didanosine (ddI)Diethylstilbestrol Differentials causes of Foot Drop Differentials of ABC Differentials of Generalised lymphadenopathy Differentials of Painful thigh Differentials of XXX Diffuse Oesophageal spasm Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma Diffusion Capacity Digoxin Digoxin Toxicity Dihydrocodeine Dilated cardiomyopathy Diltiazem Diphtheria Dipyridamole Discharges against advice Discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE)Disease template Diseases with associated cancers Dislocation Sternoclaivcular joint Disopyramide Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)Distributive Shock Disulfiram (Antabuse)Dobutamine Dog Bites Dog Bites Hand Dominant R wave in V1 Domperidone Donepezil (Aricept)Donovanosis Dopamine Hydrochloride Dopamine agonists Down's syndrome (Trisomy 21)Doxapram Doxazosin (Cardura)Doxepin Doxorubicin (Adriamycin)Doxycycline Driving Drowning Drug Induced Parkinson disease Drug Reaction Eosinophilia Systemic Symptoms DRESS Drug Template Drug Toxicity - clinical assessment Drug Toxicity with Specific Antidotes Drug induced Lupus Erythematosus Drug induced liver disease Drugs Drugs List Drugs to Avoid in Acute Renal failure Drugs to avoid Elderly Drugs to avoid in Liver failure Dry and Wet Gangrene Dual X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA)Duchenne muscular dystrophy Dulaglutide GLP-1 agonist Duloxetine Duodenal Atresia (Children)Dupuytrens contracture Dysentery Dysphagia ECG - Acute Coronary Syndrome ECG - Acute ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction ECG - Atrial fibrillation ECG - Atrial flutter ECG - Basics ECG - Broad complex tachycardia (possible VT)ECG - Brugada syndrome ECG - Causes of a Dominant R wave in V1 ECG - Early Repolarisation vs STEMI ECG - First degree AV Block ECG - Heart Block ECG - Hyperkalaemia ECG - Interpretation ECG - Ischaemic Heart Disease ECG - Left Axis Deviation ECG - Left Bundle Branch Block LBBB ECG - Left Ventricular Hypertrophy ECG - Low Voltage Complexes ECG - Narrow complex tachycardia ECG - Normal appearance ECG - Pathological Q waves ECG - QT interval ECG - Right Axis Deviation ECG - Right Bundle Branch Block RBBB ECG - ST-T T waves changes ECG - Supraventricular tachycardia ECG - The QRS complex ECG - Tutorial from Queens University ECG - Ventricular fibrillation ECG - Ventricular tachycardia ECG - Wolff Parkinson White syndrome (WPW)ECG - short PR interval ECG - sinus pause ECG - tall R wave V1 ENT Exam - Assessing hearing ENT infections Ebola Virus Disease Ebstein anomaly Echinocytes Echocardiogram Ecstasy toxicity Ectopia lentis (subluxation of the lens)Ectopic Pregnancy Ectropion Eculizumab Edoxaban (Lixiana)Edward syndrome (trisomy 18 syndrome)Efavirenz (Sustiva) EFV Ehlers-Danlos syndromes Ehrlichiosis Eikenella corrodens Eisenmenger's syndrome (Children)Elbow fractures and Injuries Electrical injury Eloquent brain Emergency Drugs Emphysema Empty sella syndrome Emtricitabine (Emtriva) FTC Enalapril End of Life Care Prescribing Endocarditis and Stroke Endocrinology Lab values Endometrial (Uterine) Cancer Endometriosis Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography X Endothelins Enfuvirtide Enoxaparin Sodium (Clexane-Lovenox)Enoximone Entacapone Enterococci Enteropathic Spondyloarthritis Enzyme inducers and inhibitors Eosinophilic granulomatosis (Churg Strauss)Ependymoma Epidural Haematoma Epidural abscess Epilepsy - General Management Epilepsy - Idiopathic Generalised Epilepsy Epilepsy - Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy Epilepsy - Post Traumatic Epilepsy in Pregnancy Episcleritis Epistaxis Eplerenone Eponymous brainstem strokes Epstein-Barr Virus infection Equivalent doses of Opiates Erb Palsy Ergocalciferol (Calciferol)Erlotinib (Tarceva)Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Erythema Multiforme Erythema Nodosum Erythrocyte Sedimentation rate (ESR)Erythrocytes Erythrodermic Psoriasis Erythromycin Escherichia coli Escitalopram Esomeprazole Essential Thrombocythaemia (ET)Essential Tremor Etanercept Ethambutol Ethanol Ethanol toxicity Ethylene glycol toxicity Etomidate Etravirine (intelence) ETR Ewing sarcoma Exenatide (Byetta) GLP1 agonist Exercise stress test Exploding head syndrome Extradural haematoma Extrapyramidal symptoms Extrinsic Allergic alveolitis (Hypersensitivity)Eye infections Ezetimibe Fabry disease Facial Nerve Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy Factor V Leiden Deficiency Faecal Calprotectin Fahr syndrome Failure to thrive or Faltering growth Familial Adenomatous polyposis (FAP)Familial Amyloidosis Familial Hypercholesterolaemia Familial Mediterranean Fever (FMF)Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcaemia (FHH)Family Tree (Pedigree)Famotidine Fanconi Anaemia Fanconi Syndrome Fat embolism Fatigue - Causes Fatty acids Febrile seizures Felodipine (Dihydropyridine)Femoral Hernia Femoral triangle Femur fractures and Inuries Fentanyl - Fentanil Ferritin Ferrous Fumarate - Gluconate - Sulphate Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Fetal circulation Fever - Pyrexia of unknown origin (FUO PUO)Fever in a traveller Fibrates Fibrinogen Fibromuscular dysplasia Fibromyalgia Fidaxomicin Finasteride (5 alpha-reductase inhibitor)First Seizure Fitz-Hugh Curtis Syndrome Flail Chest Flecainide Acetate Flexor sheath infection (flexor tenosynovitis)Flucloxacillin Fluconazole Flucytosine Fludrocortisone Fluid balances status Flumazenil (Annexate - Romazicon)Fluoxetine Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS)Foix-Alajouanine syndrome Folate (Folic) acid Folate deficiency Folinic acid (Leucovorin)Fomepizole Fondaparinux Food borne disease Foscarnet Sodium Fosfomycin Fosphenytoin Foster Kennedy Syndrome Fournier's gangrene Fracture Template Fractured Clavicle Fractured Neck of Femur Fractured Pubic Ramus Fractured Scapula Fractured Shaft Femur Fractured Tibia and Fibula Fractures Shaft Humerus Fractures in Children Fractures of Upper humerus Fragile X syndrome Frailty Fraser guidelines and Gillick Competence Free Radicals Friedreich's Ataxia Frontotemporal dementia Full or Complete Blood Count (FBC CBC)Fungi Furosemide (Frusemide)Fusidic acid Fusobacteria - Tropical ulcer Fusobacterium G protein-coupled receptors GP Emergency Drugs Carried Gabapentin Galactorrhoea Galantamine Gamete intra-fallopian tube transfer (GIFT)Gamma Glutamyl Transferase (GGT)Gamma hydroxy butyrate (GHB) toxicity Ganciclovir - Valganciclovir Gardner syndrome Gardnerella vaginalis Gas Gangrene Gastric (MALT) Lymphoma Gastric Cancer Gastric Outlet obstruction (pyloric stenosis)Gastrinoma Gastro Intestinal Stromal Tumours (GIST)Gastro-Oesophageal Reflux (Adult GORD)Gastro-Oesophgeal Reflux (Paediatrics GORD)Gastroenteritis Gastroenterology Exam Lists Gastroenterology Examination Gastroenterology History Gastroenterology assessment - Jaundice Gastrointestinal anatomy and physiology Gastrointestinal perforation Gastrostomy (PEG) tubes Gaucher's disease Gene components Genetic Diseases Gentamicin Giardiasis Gilbert's syndrome Gingival (Gum) hyperplasia-hypertrophy Gitelman's syndrome Glasgow Blatchford Score Glasgow Coma scale Glatiramer acetate (Copaxone)Glibenclamide Gliclazide Glimepiride Glipizide Globus Pallidus Glomerulonephritis Glossitis Glucagon Glucagonoma Glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency Glucose Tolerance Test Glutamate Glycated Haemoglobin Glyceryl Trinitrate (GTN)Glycogen storage diseases Glycolysis_Krebs_Electron_Transport_Chain Glycopyrronium Bromide Goitre Golfer's Elbow Golimumab (Simponi)Goodpasture's syndrome (Anti GBM disease)Goserelin (Zoladex)Gradenigo's syndrome Grades of Recommendation Gram Stain Granuloma annulare Granulomatosis with Polyangitis GPA (Wegener)Graves Disease Griseofulvin Growth Hormone Deficiency Guillain Barre Syndrome Gum hypertrophy Guthrie test New Born blood spot Gynaecological History Taking Gynaecomastia HAS-BLED score HIV and Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP)HIV and Pre-exposure prophylaxis HIV associated nephropathy (HIVAN)HIV disease Assessment HTLV-1 Associated myelopathy Haematemesis Haematology Examination - Splenomegaly Haematology Lab values Haematuria Mild to Severe Haemodialysis Haemoglobins Haemolysis Haemolytic Anaemia Haemolytic Uraemic syndrome Haemolytic disease of the newborn Haemophilia A Haemophilia B Haemophilus aegyptius Haemophilus ducreyi Haemophilus influenzae Haemophilus parainfluenzae Haemopoiesis Haemorrhagic Transformation Haemorrhagic stroke Haemorrhoids (Piles)Hairy Cell Leukaemia Hairy Leukoplakia Hallervorden-Spatz disease (PKAN)Haloperidol Hamman-Rich syndrome Hand foot and mouth disease Hand fractures and Injuries Hantavirus infections Hartmann's solution (Ringer's lactate)Hartnup disease*Hashimoto's (Steroid responsive) Encephalopathy Hashimoto's thyroiditis HbA1c Head (Brain) Injury Head and Neck Cancers Headache - Analgesic overuse Headache - Assessing Acute and Severe Headache - Basilar Migraine Headache - Cluster Headache - Low CSF pressure Headache - Migraine Headache - Tension Headaches - General Hearing aids Heat Stroke Helicobacter pylori Helvetica Spotted fever Hemicraniectomy Henoch-Schonlein purpura Heparin - General Heparin - Low Molecular Weight Heparin Heparin - Unfractionated Heparin Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT)Hepatic Encephalopathy Hepatitis A Hepatitis B Hepatitis C Hepatitis D Hepatitis E Hepatocellular Carcinoma Hepatorenal syndromes Hereditary Elliptocytosis Hereditary Haemochromatosis Hereditary Haemorrhagic Telangiectasia Hereditary Spastic Paraparesis Hereditary Spherocytosis Hereditary angio-oedema Hereditary neuropathy with pressure palsies Hereditary non polyposis coli (Lynch syndrome)Herpes Gestationis Herpes Simplex Herpes Simplex Encephalitis (HSV)Herpes Viruses Herpes Zoster Ophthalmicus (HZO) Shingles Herpes simplex keratitis (HSK)Heyde syndrome Hiatus hernia Hiccups (Singultus)High Dose Dexamethasone Suppression Test Hip pain in children Hirschsprung disease (congenital megacolon)Hirsuitism XXX Histones Histoplasmosis Hodgkin Lymphoma Holt-Oram syndrome Holter monitor (tape) 24-72 h Homocystinuria Hookworm Horner's syndrome Hospital acquired Pneumonia (NICE 139)Human albumin solution (HAS)Human prion diseases Humeral fractures and injuries Hunter's syndrome (MPS-2)Huntington Chorea Hurler's syndrome (MPS-1)Hydatid disease (Echinococcus)Hydatidiform mole Hydralazine Hydrocortisone Hydrogen Bonds Hydrops fetalis Hydroxocobalamin Hydroxocobalamin - Cyanocobalamin (B12)Hydroxychloroquine Hydroxyurea-Hydroxycarbamide Hyoscine (Buscopan)Hyper IgM syndrome Hyperbaric Oxygen therapy Hypercalcaemia Hyperglycaemic Hyperosmolar State (HHS)Hyperinsulinaemic-euglycemic therapy (HIET)Hyperkalaemia Hyperkalaemic and Hypokalaemic Periodic Paralysis Hypermagnesaemia Hypernatraemia Hyperphosphataemia (High phosphate)Hyperprolactinaemia Hypersensitivity reactions Hypertension Hypertension in Pregnancy Hypertriglyceridaemia (HTG)Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM - HOCM)Hyperventilation Syndrome Hyperviscosity syndrome Hypocalcaemia Hypoglycaemia Hypogonadism (Female)Hypogonadism (male)Hypokalaemia Hypokalaemic Periodic Paralysis Hypomagnesaemia Hyponatraemia Hypoparathyroidism Hypophosphataemia (Low phosphate)Hypopituitarism (Pituitary Failure)Hypospadias Hypothermia Hypothyroidism Hypovolaemic or Haemorrhagic Shock IL-12 receptor deficiency IV Immunoglobulin Ibandronic acid (Bisphosphonate)Ibuprofen Icatibant Idiopathic Intracranial hypertension Idiopathic Parkinson disease Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis IgA Nephropathy (Berger's disease)Images - Spot diagoses Imatinib mesylate Imipenem (Primaxin) with Cilastin Immune Reconstitution Syndrome Immune(Idiopathic) Thrombocytopenic Purpura (ITP)Immunoglobulin G4-related disease (IgG4-RD)Impetigo Implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD)Impulse control disorders Inclusion Body Myositis Incubation periods Indapamide Indinavir (IND)Infection screening in Septic patient Infections and their Microbial cause Infectious Mononucleosis Infective Conjunctivitis Infective Endocarditis Infertility Infliximab Influenza Inguinal Hernia Initial Trauma Assessment Injury Severity Score (ISS)Insomnia - sleep issues Insulin Insulinoma Interferon Beta Intermittent Claudication Internal Capsule Internuclear Ophthalmoplegia Interpreting Haematinics Interstitial Keratitis Intestinal obstruction (Children)Intra Aortic Balloon Pump Intraabdominal abscess Intracerebral Haemorrhage (ICH) Score Intracranial HypertensionX Intravenous Iron Replacement (Ferrous)Intraventricular haemorrhage (neonates)Intubation and Mechanical Ventilation Intussusception (Adults)Intussusception (Children)Iodine deficiency Goitre Ipratropium Bromide (Atrovent)Irbesartan Iron Salts Iron deficiency Anaemia Iron toxicity Irritable bowel syndrome Ischaemic Colitis Ischaemic Stroke Ischaemic heart disease Isoniazid Isoprenaline Isosorbide Dinitrate Isosorbide mononitrate Isotretinoin (Accutane)Ispaghula Husk (Fybogel)Ivabradine Jansen Disease Janus kinase 2 Jervell and Lange-Nielsen syndrome Job Syndrome (Hyper IgE syndrome)Jugular Venous Pressure (JVP)Junctional Tachycardia Juvenile Dermatomyositis Juvenile Idiopathic arthritis (Stills Disease)Juvenile Myoclonic epilepsy (JME)Kallmann's syndrome Kaposi sarcoma (KS)Karnofsky performance status scale Kawasaki disease Kennedy Syndrome Keratoconus Kernicterus Ketamine Ketoconazole Klebsiella pneumonia Klinefelter Syndrome (Children)Klumpke palsy Knee fractures and Injuries Koebner phenomenon Kugelberg Welander syndrome Kwashiorkor L-Thyroxine (T4)Labetalol (Trandate)Labyrinthitis - 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Dominance Mitral Valve prolapse Mittleschmerz Mixed Connective Tissue Disease (MCTD)Mobility aids Modified Duke Criteria for Endocarditis Modified Oxford Handicap Scale (MOHS)Modified Rankin Score Molluscum contagiosum Monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance Monocular loss of vision Monocytes Monosodium glutamate (MSG) syndrome Montelukast Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MOCA)Moraxella catarrhalis Morphine Sulphate Mosquito borne diseases Motor Neuron Disease (MND-ALS)Moyamoya disease Mucormycosis Multifocal Atrial Tachycardia Multifocal Motor Neuropathy with Conduction block Multiple Antithrombotics Anticoagulants Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia type 1 (MEN1)Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia type II (MEN2)Multiple Myeloma Multiple Pregnancy Multiple Sclerosis (MS) Demyelination Multiple System Atrophy (MSA)Mumps (Notifiable)Muscles of the Abdominal Region Muscles of the Back Muscles of the Head and Neck Muscles of the Lower Limb Muscles of the Pelvis and Perineum Muscles of the Thoracic Region Muscles of the Upper limb Myasthenia Gravis Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Mycophenolate mofetil Mycoplasma pneumoniae Mycoplasmas Mycosis Fungoides (Sezary Syndrome)Myelodysplastic syndrome (Myelodysplasia)Myelofibrosis Myelofibrosis vs CML Myelopathy Myeloproliferative disorders Myobacterium avium Complex Infection Myocardial perfusion Myoclonus Myotonic dystrophy - Dystropica myotonica Myxoedema coma N-Acetylcysteine (Parvolex)NEWS Reacting to Low Oxygen Saturations NICE Guidelines Links NICE Trauma Guidance Summary 2016 NSAID toxicity Naloxone (Narcan) Opiate antagonist Naproxen Narcolepsy Nasal polyps Nasogastric tube insertion Natalizumab (Tysabri)National Early Warning Score NEWS 2 Score Neck Pain Neck swellings and lumps Necrotising Enterocolitis (Infants)Necrotising fasciitis Needlestick injury Nefopam Neisseria gonorrhoeae Neisseria meningitidis Nelson Syndrome Neomycin Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome NAS Neonatal Jaundice Neonatal Lupus Erythematosus Neonatal meningitis Neostigmine Nephritic syndrome Nephroblastoma (Wilm's tumour)Nephrotic syndrome Nephrotoxic drugs Nerve conduction studies Nerve fibres Neuroanatomy 101 Neuroanatomy images Neuroblastoma Neurocysticercosis Neuroferrinopathy Neurofibromatosis Type 1 Neurofibromatosis Type 2 Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome Neurological - Relative Afferent pupillary defect Neurological - Vision and Eye movements Neurological Examination - 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Administer IV Injection OSCE - Blood culture OSCE - Venepuncture OSCE - Venous Cannula Insertion Obsessive-Compulsive disorder Obstetric definitions Obstructive Shock Obstructive Sleep Apnoea Octreotide Oculomotor Nerve (IIIrd Cranial Nerve)Oedema Oesophageal Carcinoma Oesophageal Perforation - Rupture Oesophageal Variceal Bleeding Oesophagogastroduodenoscopy Olanzapine Olfactory Nerve (I)Oligodendroglioma Olmersartan Olsalazine (Aminosalicylate)Omalizumab Omeprazole Onchocerciasis Oncogenic viruses Oncological emergencies Ondansetron One Table Template Ophthalmology Exam Lists Opiate Toxicity Opiates Opicapone Opioid toxicity Optic Neuritis-Neuropathy Optic atrophy Optic tract anatomy Oral Aphthous Ulcers Oral Candidiasis Oral Leukoplakia Orbital vs Preorbital Cellulitis Organism and sensitivities Organophosphate (OP) Poisoning Orphenadrine Orthopaedic infections Orthostatic - Postural hypotension Oscillopsia Oseltamivir - Tamiflu Osteoarthritis Osteogenesis Imperfecta Osteogenic sarcoma (Osteosarcoma)Osteomalacia-Rickets-Vitamin D Osteomyelitis Osteonecrosis of the jaw Osteopetrosis Osteoporosis Otitis Externa (Malignant)Otitis Media Otosclerosis Ottawa rules for ankle and foot x-ray Ovarian Cancer Ovarian Cyst Ovary Oxford community stroke project (Bamford)Oxybutynin (Ditropan)Oxycodone (Oxycontin-Oxynorm)Oxygen delivery devices Oxytetracycline PEDIS Score for Diabetic Foot Ulcers POEMS syndrome Pabrinex Pacemaker DDD Pacemaker VVI Pacemaker syndrome Pacemakers Pacing - 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Primary Pulmonary Regurgitation Pulmonary Stenosis Pulmonary hypertension - Secondary Pulse oximetry Putamen Putaminal Haemorrhage Pyloric stenosis (Children)Pyoderma gangrenosum Pyonephrosis Pyrazinamide Pyridostigmine Pyruvate Kinase deficiency Quetiapine Quinine Quinine toxicity Rabies Radial Pulse Radial nerve Radiation exposure Radioactive iodine (I 131)Radiofrequency Catheter Ablation Radius and Ulna fractures and Injuries Raloxifene Raltegravir Ramipril Ramsay Hunt syndrome Ranitidine Ranolazine Rapid sequence intubation (RSI)Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis Rasagiline Rasburicase Raynaud's Phenomenon Reactive arthritis Rectal Prolapse Red cell aplasia Red eye Refeeding syndrome Referring to Level 2 or 3 care (ITU ICU HDU)Refractive Errors Refsum's disease Relapsing polychondritis Remdesvir (Veklury)Renal Artery Stenosis Renal Papillary Necrosis Renal Physiology I Renal Stones (Nephrolithiasis)Renal Transplantation Renal Tubular Acidosis Renal Vein Thrombosis Renal cell carcinoma Renal physiology Renin and Aldosterone Renin ratio (ARR)Renin-angiotensin system Respiratory (Chest) infections and pneumonia Respiratory - 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Age over 65 Simvastatin Sinus Bradycardia Sinus Node disease Sinus Tachycardia Sitagliptin Sitosterolemia Sjogren's syndrome Skin and soft tissue infections Skull Anatomy Sleep physiology Slipped Upper Femoral Epiphysis (SUFE)Small Bowel Ischaemia Small Bowel Obstruction Small vessel disease Smallpox Smoking Snake Bites Sneddon Syndrome Sodium Bicarbonate Sodium Nitroprusside Sodium Physiology Sodium Picosulfate Sodium Thiopental - Sodium Thiopentone Sodium Valproate (Epilim Depakote)Sodium Zirconium Cyclosilicate (Lokelma)Soft tissue injuries (sprains, strains)Solifenacin Solitary Pulmonary Nodule Sotalol Hydrochloride Spetzler-Martin Grading of AVM Spina Bifida Spinal Cord Anatomy Spinal Cord Arteriovenous Malformations Spinal Cord Compression Spinal Cord Haematoma Spinal Cord Infarction Spinal Stenosis Spirometry Spironolactone Spleen Splenic Rupture Spondylolisthesis Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis Spontaneous intracranial hypotension Squamous Cell Carcinoma St John's Wort Staphylococcal Infections Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus epidermidis Staphylococcus saprophyticus Statin Status Epilepticus (Epilepsy)Stavudine (Zerit) d4T Stevens-Johnson Syndrome Stiff Person Syndrome Strabismus (Lazy Eye)Streptobacillus moniliformis Streptococci - 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Paratyphoid fever (Enteric Fever)Tyrosine Kinase receptors US vs UK Drug names Ubiquitin Ulcerative Colitis Ulnar nerve Ultrasound - Echo basics Undifferentiated Inflammatory Arthritis (Children)Unexplained symptoms Upper Gastrointestinal Bleed (GI Bleed)Upper-Lower Motor Neurone signs Urea and Electrolytes Urethral syndome Urinary Catheterisation Urinary Incontinence (Stress and Urge)Urinary Tract Infection (UTI Children)Urinary Tract Infections Urinary Tract Obstruction Urinary UTI Antibiotic guidance Urine Analysis Urothelial tumours Urticaria Uterus VIPomas VTE DVT PE in Pregnancy Vaginal Carcinoma Valaciclovir Valsartan Vancomycin Variable rate intravenous insulin infusion VRIII Variant (Prinzmetal) Angina Varicella-Zoster (Chickenpox Shingles) Infection Variegate Porphyria Vascular Dementia Vasculitis - General Issues and Classification Vasopressin (AVP) Antidiuretic hormone Vasovagal syncope Vaughan-Williams Classification Vecuronium Vedolizumab (Entyvio)Venlafaxine Venous Insufficiency and Leg Ulcers Venous access Venflons and Central lines Ventilator associated pneumonia (VAP)Ventricular Fibrillation Ventricular Septal defect (VSD) (Children)Ventricular Tachycardia Ventricular ectopic beats Verapamil Vertebral artery dissection Vertigo Vesicoureteric reflux (VUR) (Children)Vibrio parahaemolyticus Vibrio vulnificus Vibrio vulnificus Vigabatrin (Sabril)Vinblastine Vincristine Viral Meningitis Viral associated cancers Viruses Visual acuity Vitamin A deficiency (Children)Vitamin B1 Thiamine deficiency Vitamin B12 deficiency Vitamin B12 excess Vitamin C deficiency (Scurvy)Vitamin D (1,25 OH2)Vitamin D (25 OH D)Vitamin D deficiency Vitamin D resistant rickets (Children)Vitamin K (Phytomenadione)Vitamin K deficiency Vitiligo Voltarol (Diclofenac)Von Gierke Disease (Children)Von Hippel Lindau Von Willebrand Disease Waardenburg's syndrome (Children)Wagner Classification Diabetic foot ulcers Waldenstrom Macroglobulinaemia (WM)Wallerian Degeneration Warfarin Warfarin and Bleeding Water Physiology Watershed Infarcts Werdnig Hoffman Disease (Children)Wernicke Korsakoff Syndrome White Blood Cells - Leukocytes Williams Syndrome (Children)Wilson disease Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (Children)Wolff-Parkinson White syndrome (WPW)Wolfram syndrome (DIDMOAD)Wound healing X linked Agammaglobulinaemia (Bruton)X linked Hypophosphataemic rickets X-linked Ichthyosis X-linked lymphoproliferative disease (Children)Xeroderma pigmentosum Yellow Fever Yellow Nail Syndrome Yersinia enterocolitica Yersinia pestis - Bubonic Plague Yersinia pseudotuberculosis ZZAAA ZZ_Abnormal char Zabramski Classification of Cavernomas Zidovudine (Retrovir) AZT - ZDV Zieve's syndrome Zika virus Zinc deficiency Zoledronic acid Zollinger Ellison syndrome Zolpidem Zopiclone eGFR

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Urology

Cause	Clinical Presentation	Investigations	Treatment
Chronic Hepatitis B and C	Fatigue, jaundice, hepatomegaly, ascites, variceal bleeding, encephalopathy.	Liver function tests (LFTs), viral serology (HBV, HCV), liver biopsy, elastography (FibroScan), ultrasound, and CT/MRI for liver morphology.	Antiviral therapy (e.g., entecavir, tenofovir for HBV; direct-acting antivirals for HCV), management of cirrhosis complications (e.g., ascites, varices), and liver transplantation in advanced cases.
Alcoholic Liver Disease	Jaundice, hepatomegaly, ascites, variceal bleeding, encephalopathy, history of chronic alcohol use.	LFTs, serum albumin, prothrombin time (PT), ultrasound, liver biopsy, screening for alcohol use disorder.	Complete abstinence from alcohol, nutritional support, corticosteroids in severe cases, management of cirrhosis complications, and liver transplantation in advanced cases.
Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)	Usually asymptomatic in early stages; may progress to fatigue, hepatomegaly, jaundice, ascites in advanced stages.	LFTs, ultrasound, liver biopsy (to distinguish NASH from simple steatosis), transient elastography, metabolic screening (e.g., glucose, lipids).	Lifestyle modifications (weight loss, diet, exercise), management of comorbidities (e.g., diabetes, hypertension), and potential use of medications like vitamin E or pioglitazone in NASH.
Autoimmune Hepatitis	Fatigue, jaundice, arthralgia, hepatomegaly, may progress to cirrhosis with ascites, variceal bleeding.	Autoantibodies (ANA, SMA, LKM1), IgG levels, liver biopsy, LFTs, imaging for cirrhosis.	Corticosteroids (e.g., prednisolone), immunosuppressants (e.g., azathioprine), and monitoring for cirrhosis complications.
Primary Biliary Cholangitis (PBC)	Fatigue, pruritus, jaundice, xanthomas, hepatomegaly, eventually cirrhosis with its complications.	Anti-mitochondrial antibodies (AMA), LFTs (especially ALP), liver biopsy, imaging for bile ducts.	Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), obeticholic acid, symptomatic treatment (e.g., cholestyramine for pruritus), and liver transplantation in advanced disease.
Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis (PSC)	Jaundice, pruritus, fatigue, hepatomegaly, associated with inflammatory bowel disease, can progress to cirrhosis.	Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP), LFTs (especially ALP), liver biopsy, colonoscopy if IBD is suspected.	No definitive treatment, supportive care, UDCA, monitoring for cholangiocarcinoma, liver transplantation in advanced cases.
Haemochromatosis	Fatigue, arthralgia, skin pigmentation, hepatomegaly, diabetes, cardiomyopathy, cirrhosis in advanced cases.	Serum ferritin, transferrin saturation, genetic testing for HFE mutation, liver biopsy for iron quantification if diagnosis is unclear.	Phlebotomy to reduce iron levels, chelation therapy if necessary, monitoring for liver complications, and lifestyle advice (e.g., avoid iron-rich foods and alcohol).
Wilson’s Disease	Hepatic symptoms (jaundice, hepatomegaly), neurological symptoms (tremor, dysarthria), psychiatric disturbances, eventually cirrhosis.	Serum ceruloplasmin, 24-hour urinary copper, liver biopsy with copper quantification, genetic testing for ATP7B mutation.	Copper-chelating agents (e.g., penicillamine), zinc therapy, liver transplantation in cases of liver failure.
Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency	Neonatal hepatitis, chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, associated with pulmonary emphysema in adults.	Serum alpha-1 antitrypsin levels, genotyping, liver biopsy, imaging for cirrhosis.	Management of cirrhosis complications, augmentation therapy for emphysema, liver transplantation in severe cases.

Clinical signs

Symptom/Sign	Description
Fatigue	A common early symptom of cirrhosis, often due to decreased liver function and the body's inability to detoxify the blood.
Jaundice	Yellowing of the skin and eyes caused by the buildup of bilirubin due to impaired liver function.
Ascites	Accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity, leading to abdominal distension and discomfort.
Hepatomegaly	Enlargement of the liver, often felt as a firm, enlarged liver on physical examination.
Splenomegaly	Enlargement of the spleen, often associated with portal hypertension and hypersplenism.
Spider Angiomas	Small, spider-like blood vessels visible under the skin, commonly found on the face, neck, and chest.
Palmar Erythema	Reddening of the palms due to increased estrogen levels as the liver's ability to metabolize hormones is impaired.
Caput Medusae	Visible, distended veins around the umbilicus due to portal hypertension.
Gynecomastia	Enlargement of breast tissue in males, caused by an imbalance of sex hormones due to liver dysfunction.
Clubbing	Thickening of the fingertips with loss of the normal angle between the nail and the nail bed, often seen in chronic liver disease.
Confusion or Encephalopathy	Changes in mental status, ranging from mild confusion to deep coma, due to the accumulation of toxins (e.g., ammonia) that the liver can no longer detoxify.
Pruritus	Generalized itching due to the buildup of bile salts in the skin.
Bruising or Bleeding	Increased tendency to bruise or bleed easily, due to impaired synthesis of clotting factors by the liver.
Weight Loss and Muscle Wasting	Unintentional weight loss and loss of muscle mass, common in advanced cirrhosis due to malnutrition and protein catabolism.
Peripheral Edema	Swelling in the legs, ankles, and feet due to fluid retention, often associated with hypoalbuminemia and portal hypertension.

Severity

Severity Assessment	Cause	Clinical Presentation	Investigations	Treatment
Child-Pugh Score Assesses the severity of cirrhosis based on bilirubin, albumin, INR, ascites, and hepatic encephalopathy. Classified into A (mild), B (moderate), and C (severe).	Varies, often chronic liver diseases such as viral hepatitis, alcohol-related liver disease, NAFLD.	Ascites, jaundice, variceal bleeding, encephalopathy, fatigue, edema.	Liver function tests (LFTs), ultrasound, CT/MRI, endoscopy, serum albumin, bilirubin, INR.	Lifestyle modification, management of complications, monitoring for progression, liver transplantation in severe cases.
MELD Score (Model for End-Stage Liver Disease) Predicts survival, uses bilirubin, creatinine, and INR levels. Scores range from 6 to 40, with higher scores indicating greater severity.	Alcoholic liver disease, viral hepatitis, cholestatic liver diseases, autoimmune hepatitis.	Fatigue, weakness, jaundice, ascites, GI bleeding, hepatic encephalopathy.	MELD calculation based on bilirubin, creatinine, INR, sodium. Regular monitoring of liver function, imaging for liver morphology.	Management of complications, referral for liver transplantation evaluation, nutritional support, and control of risk factors.
Compensated vs. Decompensated Cirrhosis Compensated: asymptomatic or mild symptoms. Decompensated: presence of ascites, variceal haemorrhage, jaundice, or hepatic encephalopathy.	Chronic hepatitis B/C, alcoholic liver disease, NAFLD, genetic disorders (e.g., haemochromatosis, Wilson’s disease).	Compensated: asymptomatic or vague symptoms like fatigue. Decompensated: severe symptoms such as ascites, jaundice, variceal bleeding, encephalopathy.	Ultrasound, LFTs, endoscopy for varices, serum sodium, creatinine, and liver biopsy if necessary.	Compensated: surveillance and preventive care. Decompensated: aggressive management of complications, referral for liver transplantation.
Liver Biopsy Provides histological assessment of fibrosis and cirrhosis severity.	NAFLD, chronic viral hepatitis, autoimmune hepatitis, alcohol-induced liver damage.	Jaundice, pruritus, fatigue, hepatomegaly, spider angiomas, palmar erythema.	Liver biopsy with staging of fibrosis (F0-F4), imaging studies, elastography for non-invasive fibrosis assessment.	Medical management tailored to underlying cause, antifibrotic therapy, regular monitoring of disease progression, consideration for liver transplantation.
Transient Elastography (FibroScan) Non-invasive method to assess liver stiffness and estimate fibrosis stage.	Chronic viral hepatitis, alcohol-related liver disease, NAFLD, cholestatic liver diseases.	Fatigue, right upper quadrant pain, jaundice, pruritus, signs of portal hypertension (e.g., splenomegaly, varices).	FibroScan for liver stiffness, LFTs, imaging for liver and spleen morphology, assessment of portal hypertension.	Lifestyle changes, antiviral therapy for viral hepatitis, management of complications, consideration of liver transplantation for advanced fibrosis/cirrhosis.

Complications and Management

Complication	Cause	Clinical Presentation	Investigations	Treatment
Ascites	Portal hypertension leading to fluid accumulation in the peritoneal cavity.	Abdominal distension, shifting dullness, shortness of breath.	Abdominal ultrasound, diagnostic paracentesis (albumin, cell count, culture), serum-ascites albumin gradient (SAAG).	Salt restriction, diuretics (e.g., spironolactone, furosemide), large volume paracentesis, albumin infusion, TIPS in refractory cases.
Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis (SBP)	Bacterial infection of ascitic fluid, usually due to gut translocation.	Fever, abdominal pain, altered mental status, worsening ascites.	Diagnostic paracentesis (neutrophil count >250 cells/μL, culture), blood cultures.	Empirical antibiotics (e.g., cefotaxime), albumin infusion, prophylactic antibiotics for high-risk patients.
Hepatic Encephalopathy	Accumulation of toxins (e.g., ammonia) due to liver dysfunction and porto-systemic shunting.	Cognitive impairment, confusion, asterixis (flapping tremor), drowsiness, coma in severe cases.	Serum ammonia levels (not always required), clinical diagnosis, EEG in uncertain cases.	Lactulose, rifaximin, dietary protein restriction in severe cases, management of precipitating factors (e.g., infection, GI bleed).
Variceal Bleeding	Portal hypertension leading to oesophageal or gastric varices.	Haematemesis, melena, shock in severe cases, signs of chronic liver disease.	Endoscopy (esophagogastroduodenoscopy, EGD), haemoglobin levels, cross-match blood.	Endoscopic variceal ligation (EVL), IV octreotide, beta-blockers for secondary prevention, TIPS in refractory cases.
Hepatorenal Syndrome (HRS)	Severe renal vasoconstriction in advanced liver disease leading to renal failure.	Oliguria, azotemia, low urine sodium, no improvement with fluids.	Diagnosis of exclusion, serum creatinine, urine sodium (<10 mEq/L), fractional excretion of sodium (FENa) <1%.	IV albumin, vasoconstrictors (e.g., terlipressin), liver transplantation, renal replacement therapy in severe cases.
Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC)	Chronic liver disease leading to malignant transformation of hepatocytes.	Weight loss, abdominal pain, hepatomegaly, jaundice, often asymptomatic in early stages.	Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) levels, liver ultrasound, CT or MRI, liver biopsy for diagnosis confirmation.	Surgical resection, liver transplantation, radiofrequency ablation, transarterial chaemoembolization (TACE), sorafenib in advanced cases.
Portal Hypertension	Increased pressure in the portal venous system due to cirrhosis.	Splenomegaly, ascites, variceal bleeding, encephalopathy.	Clinical diagnosis, portal vein Doppler ultrasound, endoscopy to screen for varices.	Non-selective beta-blockers (e.g., propranolol), TIPS, management of variceal bleeding.
Coagulopathy	Liver dysfunction leading to reduced synthesis of clotting factors.	Easy bruising, epistaxis, bleeding gums, prolonged bleeding from minor cuts.	Prothrombin time (PT/INR), platelet count, fibrinogen levels.	Fresh frozen plasma (FFP), vitamin K supplementation, platelet transfusion if thrombocytopenia is severe.

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Makindo